By Felicity Checksfield – Art in Tanzania internship
Environmental Advocacy Program
Climate change is having an instrumental impact on water stocks in Eastern Africa. This is consequently impacting many citizens’ enjoyment of their human rights. The United Nations suggests that ‘water is the primary medium through which we will feel the effects of climate change’ (United Nations, 2018). This is because higher temperatures and more extreme, less predictable weather conditions are projected to affect the availability and distribution of rainfall, further deteriorating water quality. As of 2019, 12% of the world’s population drinks water from unimproved and unsafe sources, and more than 30% of the global population, or 2.4 billion people, live without access to sanitation (United Nations, 2020).
Specifically, 75% of Africa’s population could be at risk of hunger in Eastern Africa. Due to drought, 75 million hectares of land currently suitable for agriculture is lost in sub-Saharan Africa. It is a matter of human rights for several reasons. Contaminated water and poor sanitation are linked to the transmission of diseases such as cholera, diarrhoea and polio. Inadequately managed water and sanitation facilities expose individuals to health risks that could otherwise be prevented. It is predicted that approximately 842,000 people are to die each year from diarrhoea as a result of unsafe drinking water, sanitation and hand hygiene.
This post will examine potential climate policies from various time scales and their effectiveness in combating water scarcity in Eastern Africa. Some of the policies to be assessed will include the reuse of wastewater, water recovery, and improved sanitation.
Population data
The current population of Eastern Africa is approximately 4451,600,500. However, 37% of the world’s population without access to safe and clean water resides in this region. Access to sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa is declining, with only 31% of people able to access a toilet (6% less than that reported in 2006).
Tanzania’s population is approximately 60.7 million, with 80% of the population living in rural areas. These rural areas have a sparse population, with as few as one person per square kilometre. This increased to approximately 53 people per square kilometre in the water-rich mainland highlands. It is estimated that up to 80 per cent of Tanzania’s rural population relies on natural resources to sustain their livelihoods, making the stewardship of these resources a fundamental priority for Tanzania’s continued stability and growth. However, 4 million people in Tanzania lack access to an improved safe water source, and 30 million don’t have access to improved sanitation.
Agricultural Production Data
These statistics have instrumental implications for agricultural production in sub-Saharan Africa and Tanzania. Approximately 93% of the water withdrawn from the Tanzanian environment is used for agricultural purposes. It is, therefore, of great importance that Tanzanian communities have access to safe and clean water. Agriculture accounts for 27% of Tanzania’s gross domestic product (GDP) and employs most of the nation’s population. Moreover, the livestock sector accounts for 7% of the country’s GDP. Low livestock reproductive rates, high mortality and disease prevalence severely constrain the industry.
By the 2080s, land unsuitable for agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa due to severe climate, soil or terrain constraints may increase by 30 to 60 million hectares (United Nations, 2019). It has been projected that, as a result, there will be a 4.9% decrease in agricultural Gross Domestic Product (GDP) by 2080 (International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, 2020). It has a detrimental impact on the rural economy of Tanzania, which relies heavily on agricultural production and livestock to support livelihoods.
Human rights and vulnerable groups in rural Tanzania
Climate change and its effects on water stocks have a variety of impacts on individuals. Some factors include whether they live in rural or urban areas, whether they reside in an area that receives high rainfall, or whether they belong to a particularly vulnerable or marginalised group.
a) Children
Children and young adults are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and water scarcity. Children make up approximately 44% of the Tanzanian population, and all are vulnerable to poor health, malnutrition, and the general lack of basic needs at different levels depending on the structure and assets commanded by their families. Children under five are mostly vulnerable to diseases, malnutrition, and inadequate care.
By 2002, 4.1 million out of 10.2 million children in Tanzania aged 5-14 were not attending school. The long distances to primary school are often a problem for about 30% of households. That may discourage children from attending school and receiving an education, which commonly includes information about the importance of access to water and sanitation. As we shall see later, schools are also increasingly becoming important for children to access clean water and sanitation facilities.
b) Women
Women are particularly vulnerable to the implications of water scarcity due to their limited social mobility. When this is paired with food insecurity and restricted access to health, sanitation and education, the result is a low income. It perpetuates social isolation, and as a result, it imposes significant constraints on their ability to earn a living. Moreover, poor access to water and other household services often results in women spending long hours and walking long distances to collect these amenities. Finally, many women experience stressful childbearing and rearing due to inadequate or poor-quality maternal health care, sanitation and a clean environment.
c) Disabled individuals
One of the core characteristics of persons with disabilities is their limited mobility, which reduces their opportunities to participate in income-generating activities to increase their wealth. It consequently limits their access to basic needs such as food, health services and education. When this preexisting vulnerability is paired with intense water scarcity, disabled individuals can become some of the most marginalised in rural communities.
d) Individuals with a long-term illness
Finally, individuals with a long-term illness are at an acute health risk, which water scarcity can perpetuate. In 2001, approximately 28% of the rural people fell into this category. In Dar es Salaam and other urban areas, the figures decreased to approximately 19%. In any case, this is an enormous figure, as more than a quarter of the population falls into this category. Poor nutrition and health services that weaken the health status of the members of poor households expose them to the risks of contracting diseases and living with ill health. These individuals may be vulnerable to poverty, as they are unable to work. Access to clean water is, therefore, instrumental in preventing the decline of their condition.
Tanzanian Government Policies for Climate Change
Numerous legal provisions support the securing of access to clean water. Africa is particularly advanced in comparison to the rest of the world in this respect. The African Charter of Human Rights was the first broadly ratified international document to stipulate the right to a general satisfactory environment and referred to this right as one of the rights of the people in a community, as opposed to individuals. It emphasises the rights and duties of individuals consistent with African conceptions of human beings as integral members of a larger community.
The Tanzanian government have provided the Environmental Management Act 2004, which aims to deliver the goals of this charter. Section 4(1) provides that every person living in Tanzania shall have a right to a clean, safe and healthy environment. Section 4(2) states that this shall include the right of any citizen to access various public elements or segments of the environment for recreational, educational, health, spiritual, cultural, and economic purposes.
The 2004 Act established the Tanzanian National Environment Management Council. As per section 17(1), the object and purpose for which the Council is established is to undertake enforcement, compliance, review and monitoring of environmental impact assessment. As per section 17(2), the Council shall prepare and submit to the Minister a bi-annual report concerning how it has implemented the provisions of this Act and fulfilled the objects and the purpose for which it was established.
However, these provisions provide no more than a broad and general right. The Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations has suggested five policy responses to achieve this goal.
- Include adaptation and mitigation measures for agricultural water management in national development plans.
- Promote technical and management measures to improve the flexibility of rainfed and irrigated agriculture and reduce water losses in irrigated production systems.
- Enhance knowledge on climate change and water, and share best practices among countries and regions.
- Promote risk management in national policies through better monitoring networks and innovative insurance products.
- MoMobilized adaptation funds to meet the challenges of water and food security under climate change.
5.1. School Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (SWASH) guidelines
The School Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (SWASH) guidelines provide one example of the Tanzanian government adopting some of these policy responses. The guidelines aim to increase education and awareness of the importance of access to water and sanitation. It is a toolkit with both hardware and software aspects to change the hygiene behaviour of students and, through these students, the community at large.
They suggest several systems and methods to improve sanitation, preserve water, and collect water.
Protected springs offer a source of water that is often free from pathogens. If the dissolved minerals are within permitted parameters, they can provide good-quality drinking water. SWASH advises that appropriate civil construction can prevent this water from being contaminated at the spring’s collection point. Moreover, the spring’s surrounding environment should not be degraded, and SWASH advises against deforestation or contamination in this area, primarily.
Shallow wells or hand-dug wells are a simple method of using groundwater. However, they are only suitable for regions with an exceptionally high water table and good water quality. SWASH provides two systems—one automatic and one manual—for collecting water. Rainwater harvesting is another simple yet effective way of collecting water.
However, as SWASH highlights, the weakness in these methods often lies in the fact that the water is not treated before drinking it. It is necessary to follow the provided procedures, remove any solid material, and boil the water to eliminate any bacteria. It reduces the chances of contracting waterborne diseases.
Regarding sanitation, improved pit (VIP) latrines offer a clean and cost-effective way to store human waste. A draft passes through the pit’s collection area, which means that the smell and insects cannot linger. It improves sanitation and the appeal of using the facilities.
Finally, the guidelines significantly stress the importance of using hand-washing stations. It is a simple yet highly effective way for students to reduce the likelihood of carrying diseases on their bodies and spreading infections.
What next?
The SWASH guidelines provide an essential educational tool for schools to implement these systems. However, many of the structures require advanced infrastructure for their long-term effectiveness. Therefore, significantly more investment must be made in these rural communities for these systems to achieve the best quality. For example, the VIP latrines require a high level of construction to prevent human waste from contaminating the surrounding groundwater and soil.
Moreover, for the program to work as intended, its information and guidance must be spread beyond the school environment and implemented in rural communities. This information distribution is arguably the most effective way of mitigating the impacts of water scarcity in these regions. An example is the critical work of non-governmental organisations such as Art in Tanzania, which distributes and educates local communities.
